Category Archives: Grammar

Types of Conjunctions

Let’s be honest. Conjunctions aren’t very exciting. They’re not as descriptive as nouns, as colorful as adjectives or as dynamic as verbs. However, these small but mighty parts of speech are a critical part of your writer’s tool kit. Different types of conjunctions help you to smooth out choppy writing, bring together ideas, and build flowing complex sentences.

When you understand how these grammatical elements fit together, you can structure your writing better and become a stronger content writer. Let’s run through some conjunction examples, the four types of conjunctions, and what to watch for when you’re putting these words to work.

What’s a Conjunction?

A conjunction is a part of speech that links words, phrases and clauses. Think of them as bridges that connect ideas. Conjunctions fall into one of four categories based on how they’re used.

What Are Some Examples of Conjunctions in Sentences?

Coordinating conjunction example:

• He can’t get a ride, so he has to stay home.

Correlative conjunction example:

• I don’t know whether he’s getting a ride or staying home.

Subordinating conjunction example:

• Because he can’t get a ride, he has to stay home.

Conjunctive adverb:

• He can’t get a ride; therefore, he has to stay home.

What are Some Common Conjunctions?

Below are lists of common conjunctions you can use in your writing, and there are plenty to pick from. These lists aren’t exhaustive, except for the coordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions list

Some people use the mnemonic “fanboys” to remember the seven coordinating conjunctions.

• for
• and
• nor
• but
• or
• yet
• so

Correlative conjunctions list

• either/or
• neither/nor
• not only/but also
• as/as
• both/and
• whether/or

Subordinating conjunctions list

• after
• although
• as soon as
• because
• before
• by the time
• in case
• now that
• since
• unless
• when
• whether or not
• while

Conjunctive adverbs list

• after all
• besides
• consequently
• finally
• however
• nevertheless
• then
• therefore

What are the Types of Conjunctions?

There are four categories of conjunctions:

• Coordinating conjunctions (or, and, but)
• Correlative conjunctions (and/or, not only/but also)
• Subordinating conjunctions (since, because, when)
• Conjunctive adverbs (however, therefore)

Here’s a closer look at how to use them and what to watch for in terms of punctuation and construction.

1. Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are single words (example: and, but, or, so).

They link equivalent grammatical elements, such as nouns with nouns, and clauses with clauses. The ideas being connected carry the same weight in a sentence.

• I stayed up all night writing, so I was tired the next day
• She’s editing and proofreading my essay.

What to watch for when using coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses (complete thoughts or sentences), use a comma between the clauses.

• I can’t remember the rules, so I need a refresher.

When you’re joining an independent clause and a dependent clause (incomplete thought), you don’t need a comma.

• I prefer to write on my laptop but edit on paper.

2. Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs (example: either/or, both/and, not only/but also, as/as)

Similar to coordinating conjunctions, they link grammatical elements of similar importance.

• I not only passed the exam, but also got 100%.
• The box is as tall as it is wide.

What to watch for when using correlative conjunctions:

Correlative conjunctions need parallel construction. Check the words after each conjunction and make sure they’re similarly structured.

• Correct: We should either book the tickets in advance or arrive an hour early. (In this example, the phrase “book the tickets” is parallel to “arrive an hour early”)
• Incorrect: We should either book the tickets in advance or be arriving an hour early. (In this example, the phrase “book the tickets” is not parallel to “be arriving”)

3. Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are one or more words that unite ideas in a complex sentence (example: as soon as, in case, unless, while).

They link dependent clauses (incomplete thoughts) to independent clauses (complete thoughts).

• Unless we give him a ride, he won’t be able to come.
• Here’s some cash in case your credit card doesn’t work.

The subordinating conjunction is placed in front of the dependent clause. As Cambridge Dictionary explains, subordinating conjunctions modify the independent clause and provide a cause, reason, result or purpose.

What to watch for when using subordinating conjunctions:

Use a comma if the subordinating conjunction and dependent clause are at the beginning of a sentence. Otherwise, the comma isn’t required.

• As soon as she’s finished her phone call, we’ll leave for the restaurant.
• We’ll leave for the restaurant as soon as she’s finished her phone call.

4. Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs are one or more words used to join two independent clauses (example: after all, besides, nevertheless).

These words are technically adverbs, but perform the same linking function as conjunctions.

What to watch for when using conjunctive adverbs:

When a conjunctive adverb unites two independent clauses in one sentence, it’s preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma.

• The dessert is so tempting; however, I’m trying to eat less sugar.
• We’re happy to pay for your expenses; after all, you’re doing us a favor.

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Who, Which, and That

Which and Who: Non-Restrictive Clauses

Non-restrictive clauses provide information that does not change the meaning of the sentence if it is removed.

These clauses are introduced by who (for humans) and which (for animals and things).

Example: The desk, which is made of faux-wood, is heavier than I expected. (You could say: The desk is heavier than I expected.)

Example: Bernice, who studies archaeology, is going to Greece this summer. (You could say: Bernice is going to Greece this summer.)

In the middle of a sentence, non-restrictive clauses are surrounded by commas, and at the end of a sentence they are preceded by a comma.

That and Who: Restrictive Clauses

Restrictive clauses provide information that is essential to the meaning of the sentence.

These clauses are introduced by who (for humans) and that (for humans, animals, and things).

Example: Fruit that is organic is more expensive than non-organic fruit. (You can’t say: Fruit is more expensive than non-organic fruit.)

Example: The man who bought my car owns a record shop. (You can’t say: The man owns a record shop.)

Example: The man that bought my car owns a record shop. (“That” and “who” can both be used with humans.)

Restrictive clauses do not use commas.

Learn More:

• Grammar Book: Who, That, Which
• Grammar Girl: Which Versus That

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Have you ever been told, “It’s more fun, not funner”, and wondered, “How am I supposed to know that”? If so, this lesson is for you.

Definitions

As the name implies, a comparative adjective compares two things. It’s formed by using “more” or “-er”.

This lesson is more interesting than that one.

I am stronger than you are.

A superlative adjective compares more than two things by showing which is the “most” or “-est”.

This is the most delicious lemon meringue pie I have ever tasted.

The gold medalist ran the fastest.

General Rules for One-Syllable Adjectives

In general, one-syllable adjectives use the -er and -est endings.

short, shorter, shortest

kind, kinder, kindest

rich, richer, richest

Now, you might be thinking, “So funner is right!” Unfortunately, English wouldn’t be English if it weren’t full of exceptions.

Even though most one-syllable adjectives use -er and -est, fun doesn’t. More fun and most fun are right.

Adjectives That End in Y

If the adjective ends in “y”, it also adds -er and -est. But be careful! You also need to change the y to an i.

Wrong: jollyer, fancyest

Right: jollier, fanciest

Adjectives with Three or More Syllables

There are no exceptions here!

These adjectives all use more and most.

illuminating, more illuminating, most illuminating

adventurous, more adventurous, most adventurous

catastrophic, more catastrophic, most catastrophic

Pesky Two-Syllable Adjectives

Did you notice that we jumped from one- to three-syllable adjectives? That’s because rules don’t really exist for adjectives with two syllables.

Some use -er/-est, some use more/most, and a lot can use either one.

Cleverer, more clever, cleverest, and most clever are all correct.

If you’re ever unsure which form to use, look it up. A quick Google search will reveal if you’re using the right form or not.

Irregular Adjectives

Last but not least are our irregulars. These adjectives don’t follow the rules at all, so you’ve just got to know what their comparative and superlative forms are:

bad, worse, worst

far, farther/further, farthest/furthest

good, better, best

little, less, least

much, more, most

old, older/elder, oldest/eldest

The good news is that that’s all! The list of irregulars is nice and short this time.

Learn more:

• Oxford Dictionary: Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Dangling Modifiers: Where’s the Subject?

Dangling modifiers occur when a phrase doesn’t have the subject that it’s supposed to modify.

Sentences with dangling modifiers are often funny because they have unintended meanings.

Wrong: Having eaten a small lunch, dinner tasted especially good.

Right: Having eaten a small lunch, Elaine thought that dinner tasted especially good.

The subject, Elaine, was left out of the first sentence, so it seems like dinner is the one that ate a small lunch, which doesn’t make sense.

Wrong: After finishing work, swimming is relaxing.

Right: After finishing work, Alexei relaxes by swimming.

Swimming didn’t finish work; Alexei did.

Misplaced Modifiers: In the Wrong Spot

Misplaced modifiers are a special type of dangling modifier that occur when the modifying phrase is separated from its subject.

Wrong: Piers saw a bear on the way to the gym.

Right: On the way to the gym, Piers saw a bear.

In the first sentence, it isn’t clear if it’s Piers or the bear that’s going to the gym.

Wrong: Wounded by falling off her bike, the paramedics put Jade on a stretcher.

Right: The paramedics put Jade, who was wounded by falling off her bike, on a stretcher.

Learn More:

• Purdue Owl: Dangling Modifiers
• Grammar Monster: Misplaced Modifiers

Noun-Pronoun Agreement Part 2

In part one of Noun-Pronoun Agreement we covered singular and plural pronouns.

Now let’s look at agreeing in person and making sure that the antecedent is obvious.

Agreeing in Person

In grammar, there are first-, second-, and third-person pronouns.

• First-Person: I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours
• Second-Person: You, your
• Third-Person: He, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, they, them, their, theirs

Just like your antecedent and pronoun must agree in number, they must also agree in person.

Wrong: Writers need to accept that you’ll never satisfy everyone about using a singular “they”.

Right: Writers need to accept that they’ll never satisfy everyone about using a singular “they”.

Wrong: Robyn, as an experienced writer, what are her thoughts about “they” being a singular pronoun?

Right: Robyn, as an experienced writer, what are your thoughts about “they” being a singular pronoun?

Having a Clear Antecedent

Consider this sentence: I got a flat tire on my bike, and the bus broke down, but it was easy to fix. Now you’re wondering, “What was easy to fix? The bike or the bus?” The problem with this sentence is that the antecedent is unclear.

Improved: I got a flat tire on my bike, and the bus broke down, but at least the tire was easy to fix.

Improved: I got a flat tire on my bike, and the bus broke down, but the former was easy to fix.

Improved: I got a flat tire on my bike, and the bus broke down, but the mechanics easily fixed the bus.

Be especially careful when using “this” and “that” that it’s clear what they refer to.

Wrong: Grapes are my favorite fruit. This is great.

Improved: Grapes are my favorite fruit. This bunch is great.

I improved the sentence by adding a noun after “this,” which is a good way to make sure that it’s obvious what “this” is.

Learn More:

• Purdue Owl: Pronouns

Noun-Pronoun Agreement Singular and Plural

In the parts of speech lesson, you learned that a pronoun replaces a noun. Sometimes a pronoun won’t have a noun that it refers to, like the “you” in the previous sentence. More often, though, a pronoun will have an antecedent: a noun that it’s replacing. In the following examples, the antecedent is bolded and the pronoun is underlined.

Example: Ariel is usually optimistic, but she’s very upset today.

Example: When they arrived  in Los Angeles, the Smiths had trouble clearing customs, so they were at the airport for four hours.

Singular Nouns and Pronouns

The first example sentence shows a singular noun and it’s corresponding singular pronoun. Singular means one.

Here are some singular nouns: banana, radio, Claire, harmonica

Here are some singular pronouns: I, you, she, its, this, himself, who

When you use a singular noun, you can only use a singular pronoun (not a plural one).

Example: Reginald wanted to try throwing the ball himself.

Example: The kitten is huge for its age.

Plural Nouns and Pronouns

As you might expect, when you use a plural noun, you can only use a plural pronoun (not a singular one). Plural means more than one.

Here are some plural nouns: cars, dandelions, cookies, tweets

Here are some plural pronouns: they, us, you, those, who

Example: The tightrope walkers were up so high that I was afraid they would fall.

Example: Jack’s friends, who also play is his band, were at the party.

Is “They” Okay?

English has three third-person singular pronouns: he for males, she for females, and it for things. What English doesn’t have is a gender-neutral third-person singular pronoun. Consider the following two sentences.

Example: Nadia lost her keys at the store today.

Example: Someone lost ___ keys at the store today.

The first sentence is correct because “Nadia” and “her” agree in number (singular) and gender (feminine). But what should replace the blank space in the second sentence? Here are some options:

• Someone lost their keys at the store today. (“Someone” is singular and “their” is plural, so this sentence breaks the rules that we just learned, but it is acceptable in colloquial English.)
• Someone lost his or her keys at the store today. (This version is grammatically correct, but it’s clunky, especially if you use it repetitively.)
• Someone lost his keys at the store today. (“His” was traditionally used as a generic third-person pronoun, but this usage is now considered sexist. Some writers alternate between using he and using she, but such variation can be confusing for the reader.)
• Someone lost a pair of keys at the store today. (This version doesn’t use a pronoun at all, so it is a great solution.)

Which option should you pick? First, rewrite to see if you can eliminate the pronoun. If rewriting doesn’t work, consider the tone of your writing.

Is it formal, academic, or serious?

Using a variation of he and she is probably your best option, since it’s grammatically correct. Or is your writing informal and conversational?

In that case, using “they” is probably fine, since it’s widely used as a singular pronoun informal speech. Also ask your client if they (!) prefer “they” or “s/he”.

Learn More:

• Oxford Dictionary: He or She vs They
• Grammar Girl: Generic Singular Pronouns

Parts of Speech

In English, there are nine types of words, or parts of speech. Knowing the parts of speech will make it easy to understand other Stellar University lessons.

1. Verbs

Verbs are key because you can’t have a sentence without them. They’re the action words that vivify your writing. Some verbs, like wrestle, sprint, and accelerate, are obviously active, but don’t be fooled into thinking that verbs have to be sporty.

Be, sit, and write are verbs because they all refer to doing something (even if it’s just existing).

2. Noun

You might remember learning that a noun is a person, place, or thing. So, Sherlock Holmes, Timbuktu, blogger, and love are all nouns. As you can see, some nouns are capitalized and some aren’t.

Don’t worry! You’ll learn all about that in the capitalization lesson.

3. Pronouns

Pronouns stand in for nouns. I, they, yourself, who, and somebody are all pronouns.

4. Adjectives

Adjectives modify nouns, meaning that they change nouns, usually by making them more specific. By adding adjectives to the noun “writer,” we can say “crazy, chocoholic, efficient writer.”

5. Adverbs

Adverbs have the same function of modifying, but they change verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Live vicariously, extremely adventurous, and very malignantly are examples of of adjectives in their three uses. As the examples show, many (but not all!) adverbs end in -ly.

6. Prepositions

While we’re talking about modifiers, let’s cover prepositions, which specify when or where something happens or is. At, beside, in, to, and since are all prepositions.

Some people consider it bad grammar to end a sentence with a preposition, but don’t worry about this convention in informal, online writing.

7. Conjunctions

Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses together. They include, but, so, although, because, and as.

8. Articles

Articles are easy to learn because there are only two of them: a (which changes to an in front of vowels) and the. Articles always go before nouns.

A/an is the indefinite article, meaning that it refers to a non-specific noun (e.g. “a dragon” means any dragon). The is the definite article, so it does refer to a specific noun (e.g. “the dragon” is a particular dragon that you’re referring to).

9. Interjections

We’re almost done! Interjections are exclamations like wow, yes, well, darn, and um. They’re separated from the rest of the sentence by an exclamation mark or comma, depending on how strong the feeling is.

That’s it! You now know the nine parts of speech, and you’re all set for when this terminology appears in the rest of Stellar University.

Learn More:

• Parts of Speech
• School House Rock Parts of Speech

Sentences

A sentence is made of a subject and a predicate. Those terms aren’t on our parts of speech list, so let’s find out what they mean.

Subjects and Predicates

The subject is the thing or person that is doing the action in the sentence. Since nouns refer to things and people, the subject is a noun or pronoun, but it can also be modified by an article or adjective.

The predicate is everything else. The most important part of the predicate is the verb; you can’t have a sentence without a verb.

In the examples below, the subject is underlined, the verb is bolded, and the predicate is italicized.

Example: The dog runs.

Example: I am eating cake.

Example: The blue car drove down the dusty road.

As you can see, all you need for a sentence is a subject and a verb, but you can have a longer predicate as well.

Imperative sentences, which issue a command, are often just a verb, but they have an implied subject.

Example: Stop! = [You] stop!

Independent and Dependent Clauses

The example sentences that I’ve given so far are also independent clauses. An independent clause has a subject, a verb, and is a complete thought. In contrast, a dependent clause is not a complete thought, even though it also has a subject and a verb.

Independent Example: I studied grammar today

Dependent Example: While I studied grammar today

Independent Example: Writing is hard work

Dependent Example: Because writing is hard work

An independent clause can stand by itself and be a complete sentence, but a dependent clause needs to join with an independent clause to make a sentence.

When you join the two types of clauses together, follow these rules (the independent clause is blue and the dependent clause is red):

Dependent + Comma + Independent

Example: While it was raining, I baked cookies.

Example: Since you are funny, I want to be friends.

Independent + Dependent

Example: I’m busy studying because my exam is tomorrow.

Example: I felt sick after I ate all that chocolate.

Basically, if the dependent clause is first, you need a comma before the independent clause, but no comma is needed if the independent clause goes first. The exception is relative clauses, which are covered here.

Sentence Problems: Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Now you know how to join a dependent clause to an independent clause, but what about joining two independent clauses together?

Some writers try to join independent clauses using the same techniques that we just learned, but they are wrong. Joining two independent clauses with a comma is called a comma splice.

Wrong: There are so many rules about sentences, I’m confused.

Another mistake is joining two independent clauses together with no punctuation. This is called a fused sentence.

Wrong: There are so many rules about sentences I’m confused.

Now, we need to find the solution to these problems. You have three options when joining independent clauses:

1. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (those are the FANBOYS, remember)
2. Use a semicolon
3. Use a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a comma

Right: There are so many rules about sentences, so I’m confused.

Right: There are so many rules about sentences; I’m confused.

Right: There are so many rules about sentences; therefore, I’m confused.

Sentence Problems: Fragments

Remember, a dependent clause needs an independent clause to be a complete sentence. If you have a dependent clause by itself, then it’s a sentence fragment.

Example: Although I love swimming.

Example: Because of the weather.

A sentence expresses a complete thought, but sentence fragments leave you wondering, “Although what? Because of what?”

Because online writing is informal and conversational, sometimes it’s okay to use sentence fragments, which are used in informal speech. Since they’re grammatically incorrect, sentence fragments stand out. If you choose to use a fragment, make sure that you have a good reason and aren’t just being lazy.

Learn more:

• What Is a Sentence?
• Independent and Dependent Clauses
• Sentence Fragments

Subject-Verb Agreement

Just like nouns and pronouns, subjects and verbs need to agree. Once, again, the basic rule is that singular subjects take singular verbs.

Wrong: The room are cold today.

Right: The room is cold today.

Wrong: Scientists makes new discoveries every day.

Right: Scientists make new discoveries every day.

Now, let’s try some trickier situations.

What Is the Subject?

Is this sentence right or wrong?

Example: The basket of teas are full.

It’s wrong! Why? Because the subject is “basket”, which is a singular noun, and “are” is a plural verb. Thinking that “tea” is the subject is a common mistake, but just remember this rule: the subject comes before a phrase that starts with “of”.

Example: The games of the child were lively. (Or: The child’s games were lively.)

Example: The bag of candies is all gone.

Adding And

When you join two nouns with the conjunction “and”, you make a plural subject.

Wrong: Alfred and Susan drinks tea copiously.

Right: Alfred and Susan drink tea copiously.

Be careful of compound nouns, like “bed and breakfast”, that refer to one thing even though they contain the word “and”.

Wrong: The bed and breakfast are quaint.

Right: The bed and breakfast is quaint.

What to Do with Or and Nor

Even though they’re also conjunctions, “or”, “either/or”, and “neither/nor” do not make  plural subjects.

Wrong: Pie or cake are on sale this week.

Right: Pie or cake is on sale this week.

If your or/nor sentence has a plural and a singular subject, the verb agrees with the subject closest to it.

Wrong: Neither the Lees nor Cassius are coming skating.

Right: Neither the Lees nor Cassius is coming skating.

Right: Neither Cassius nor the Lees are coming skating.

The last sentence sounds more colloquial than the second sentence, so it is probably best to use the singular subject, plural subject, plural verb order when you write these types of sentences.

Don’t Get Distracted by Words in the Middle

Sometimes, you might have a long string of modifiers (but hopefully not too long!) between your subject and your verb. Don’t lose track of what your subject is!

Wrong: The man that has nine cats are crazy.

Right: The man that has nine cats is crazy.

Wrong: The security guard, as well as the robbers, are having an adventurous night.

Right: The security guard, as well as the robbers, is having an adventurous night.

Indefinite Pronouns

The words anybody, anyone, each, each one, either, everybody, everyone, neither, nobody, no one, somebody, and someone are all singular.

Wrong: Nobody are cooler than you.

Right: Nobody is cooler than you.

Wrong: Each one are important to the team.

Right: Each one is important to the team.

What About None?

None can mean “not one”, in which case it is singular, or “not any”, in which case it is plural.

You have to go with your gut about which meaning is correct in your sentence, but don’t worry too much — chances are that you’ll be right either way.

Right: None of you cook as well as my grandmother does.

Right: None of you cooks as well as my grandmother does.

Nouns That Try to Fool You

A collective noun refers to a group of things, but it is singular.

Wrong: My family are coming for dinner.

Right: My family is coming for dinner.

Other nouns seem singular, but are really plural.

Wrong: The scissors slips out of my hand.

Right: The scissors slip out of my hand.

Learn More:

• Grammar Book: Subject-Verb Agreement
• Purdue Owl: Subject-Verb Agreement
• Grammar Girl: None Is or None Are

Tense Agreement

As a writer, you want your reader’s experience to be as smooth as possible. That ease is why you don’t want sentences like this one:

I am eating lunch when you called me.

If you feel confused by that sentence, you’re right. The first verb is in the present tense, and the second verb is in the past tense, but switching between tenses isn’t usually allowed. We can improve the sentence by writing:

I was eating lunch when you called me.

or

I am eating lunch when you call me.

If the actions in your sentence take place at different times, then you have to change the tense by using a subordinate clause.

Example: Since it will be dark in half an hour, we are going for a walk now.

Example: The builders are working hard after the tornado hit last week.

You need to be consistent about tense in your paragraphs and copy as well.

You can choose to write in the past, present, or future, but you need to stick with whatever you choose. Tense consistency is key for readability.

Learn More:

• Towson University: Tense Consistency